Issue of Tuberculosis in Australia

Issue of Tuberculosis in Australia The incidence and prevalence of Tuberculosis in Australia and Peru are of greatly vast differences. This paper will discuss the terms incidence and prevalence; why Tuberculosis remains an issue in Australia; and provide rationales for differences in incidences and prevalences taking into consideration the determinants of health. Incidence and prevalence when describing disease epidemiology are frequently used terms, often intertwined (Advanced Renal Education Program, 2015). Incidence describes the rate of new cases of a disease, generally conveyed as the number of new cases which occur at a given point in time (Advanced Renal Education Program, 2015). The incidence rate is commonly reported as a fraction of a population at risk of developing a disease (ie: per 100 000) (World Health Organization Global Tuberculosis Programme). Whereas prevalence is articulated as a percentage of the number of cases per 100 000 (World Health Organization Global Tuberculosis Programme). Prevalence is the actual number of live cases of the disease during a period (Advanced Renal Education Program, 2015). The association between incidence and prevalence depends on the natural history of the disease being reported (Health, 2017). Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the worlds deadliest diseases, with 1/3 of the worlds population infected (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). TB is an infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and usually affects the lungs (Australia, 2017). However, TB may also involve the kidneys, bones, spine and brain (Australia, 2017). TB is usually spread by breathing in the bacteria after an untreated person has coughed or sneezed (Australia, 2017). Overcrowding is a defining feature of areas of high TB endemicity (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). Ongoing close contact between active cases and susceptible individuals is necessary to maintain endemicity in a population, however we will discuss health determinants further into this paper. Australia has maintained a low rate of TB since the mid-1980s, however over the last 20 years TB incidence rates have steadily increased (Teo, Tay, Douglas, Krause, Graham, 2015). Australia has recorded its highest incidence rate since 1985 in 2011 being 6.2 per 100, 000 (Teo et al., 2015). In 2015 Australias TB incidence was 6 per 100, 000 per the World Bank (Trade Economics, 2017). When researching the prevalence of TB in Australia World Health Organisation (WHO) publications noted TB case notifications to the value of 1 254, this being the same rate as per new and relapse cases (World Health Organization, 2015). The incidence of TB in Peru shows a much more alarming story. Perus TB cases were last measured in 2015 with an incidence rate of 119 per 100, 000 (World Health Organization, 2015). Research obtained from World Bank stating these incidences were recorded from new pulmonary, smear positive and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis cases (Economics, 2017). Prevalence information obtained at this time reads TB notification cases of 30 988 (World Health Organization, 2015). Total new and relapse cases registered were reported to be that of 29 833 (World Health Organization, 2015). With Australias TB incidence rate increasing, the question is why is this an issue now? Research shows that many of Australias holiday destinations are teeming with TB that is now becoming resistant to drug treatment (Dunlevey, 2015). Holiday makers such as teachers and childcare workers are reported to be travelling to TB hot-spots and many bringing the bacteria to Australian shores (Dunlevey, 2015). Research has also shown that those living in high TB prevalent countries are migrating to Australia ((AMA), 2008). With the increases in immigrants, overcrowding and malnutrition are common risk factors for the spread of TB (Australian Indigenous Health Info Net, 2015). Australias shoreline is another factor for the increase in TB rates with Western Province of Papua New Guinea and Torres Strait Islands having recorded active strains of Multi-drug resistant strains of TB ((AMA), 2008). TB remains to be a social disease that is inextricably linked to vicious cycles of poverty (Wingfield et al., 2016). Poverty predisposes individuals to TB and hidden costs associated with even free TB treatment can be catastrophic (Wingfield et al., 2015). Other determinants of health that can predispose populations to incidences of TB may include, but are not limited to: Income and social status: research shows that higher income and social status can be linked to better health outcomes. Education: poor health can be linked to lower education levels, increasing stress and lowering self-confidence. Physical environment: safe water and clean air, along with healthy workplaces and safe housing all contribute to good health outcomes. Generally, those people who are employed are healthier. Social support networks: better health outcomes have been linked with communities with greater support from families and friends. Culture and beliefs of family and community can have an overall effect on ones health. Genetics: can play a role in determining lifespan, healthiness and the likelihood of developing certain illnesses. Health services: access and usage of services that prevent and treat diseases influences health. Gender: different types of diseases at different ages can affect both men and women. The determinants of health are typically accountable for health inequities and the unfair and avoidable differences in health status as seen between Australia and Peru (Hargreaves et al., 2011). Social disadvantages such as lower educational attainment, job uncertainties, unemployment and poor access to appropriate housing (Hargreaves et al., 2011). Poor access to communications and environmental challenges also impact on health status (Hargreaves et al., 2011). Research has shown that although Perus malnutrition and school enrolment rates have improved, there is still a majority of poor children who temporarily or permanently drop out of school to help support their families (Agency, 2017). Poverty, malnutrition, and hunger is known to increase the susceptibility to infection leading to significant social and economic barriers that delay their contact with health systems in which an appropriate treatment regime can be commenced (Hargreaves et al., 2011). With this research found, th e author can not state that Australians are better-off than the Peruvians. Non-indigenous Australians living in Metropolitan areas have significantly greater resources at their disposal, housing and schooling is of higher quality, and health and support systems easily accessible (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2012). However, indigenous Australians and those living in rural and remote areas of Australia do not have the same access as their city cousins (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2012). The determinants of health therefore impact on the ability to access, resource, and utilise health care programs (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2012). As discussed, the incidence and prevalence of Tuberculosis in Australia and Peru have been shown to be of great differences. While this paper discussed the terms incidence and prevalence; why Tuberculosis remains an issue in Australia; and provided rationales for the differences in incidences and prevalences while taking into consideration the determinants of health. REFERENCE LIST: (AMA), A. M. A. (2008). Tuberculosis in Australia. Retrieved from https://ama.com.au/media/tuberculosis-australia Advanced Renal Education Program. (2015). Incidence and Prevalence. Retrieved from http://advancedrenaleducation.com/content/incidence-and-prevalence Agency, C. I. (2017). World Fact Book Peru. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html Australia, D. o. H. W. (2017). Tuberculosis. Retrieved from http://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/S_T/Tuberculosis Australian Indigenous Health Info Net. (2015). Summary of Tuberculosis in Indigenous People. Retrieved from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/infectious-conditions/tuberculosis/reviews/our-review Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2012). Australias food nutrition 2012. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). Tuberculosis (TB). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/ Dunlevey, S. (2015). Tuberculosis disease explodes in Australians favourite holiday spots, WHO report shows. Health. Economics, T. (2017). Incidence of Tuberculosis Peru. Retrieved from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/peru/incidence-of-tuberculosis-per-100-000-people-wb-data.html Hargreaves, J. R., Boccia, D., Evans, C. A., Adato, M., Petticrew, M., Porter, J. D. (2011). The social determinants of tuberculosis: from evidence to action. Am J Public Health, 101(4), 654-662. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2010.199505 Health, N. I. o. M. (2017). What is Prevalence. Retrieved from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/prevalence/index.shtml Teo, S. S., Tay, E. L., Douglas, P., Krause, V. L., Graham, S. M. (2015). The epidemiology of tuberculosis in children in Australia, 2003-2012. Med J Aust, 203(11), 440. Trade Economics. (2017). Incidence of Tuberculosis Australia. Retrieved from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/australia/incidence-of-tuberculosis-per-100-000-people-wb-data.html Wingfield, T., Boccia, D., Tovar, M. A., Huff, D., Montoya, R., Lewis, J. J., . . . Evans, C. A. (2015). Designing and implementing a socioeconomic intervention to enhance TB control: operational evidence from the CRESIPT project in Peru. BMC Public Health, 15, 810. doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2128-0 Wingfield, T., Tovar, M. A., Huff, D., Boccia, D., Saunders, M. J., Datta, S., . . . Evans, C. (2016). Beyond pills and tests: addressing the social determinants of tuberculosis. Clin Med (Lond), 16(Suppl 6), s79-s91. doi:10.7861/clinmedicine.16-6-s79 World Health Organization Global Tuberculosis Programme, W. G. T. Global tuberculosis control : WHO report (pp. 15 volumes). Geneva: Global Tuberculosis Programme. World Health Organization, W. (2015). Global tuberculosis report. In G. T. Programme. (Ed.), (pp. volumes). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organisation.

Historical Development of Physical Education Essay

Primitive man moves according to their satisfaction, needs and necessity. They just live by means of hunting such wild animals in the forest, or by fishing along the rivers, streams and sometimes they engage in welfare murder to insure their protection from adverse elements or a hostile environments. Physical activities were not organized by them. Because their motives about this are for searching foods and protects their selves from their enemies, their gregarious nature was innate and drives only by mating and propagation that gives them desire to dance and play which not being organized. In the Ancient Oriental Countries, china concerned only by their intellectual excellence they neglecting physical activities however some are believes about the importance of this to the body and has a spirit. And this was only a riches and favored class this was music, dancing and archery. Like in split feather dance, whole feather dance, battle dance and the humanity dance which popular by them. Medical Gymnastics has developed as early as 2698 BC, people had felt illness because of their sedentary life which them to realize the importance of physical activities. The â€Å"Kung Fu† as an earliest exercise in the history that they contributed like in Ancient China, â€Å"Yoga† has been contributed also by Indian people that composed of exercises the posture and regulates breaths. This exercise has been accepted by people as the important activity to discipline minds and body. There as some Greece Philosopher, teachers and medical men who and contributes worth of Physical Education. According to: Herodotus – recognized the use of physical education as an aid to medicine as early as the fifth century. Galen – stated that physical education is a part of hygiene and subordinate to medicine. Socrates – gave emphasis on the important of physical education attaining health in order to achieve one’s purpose in life grave mistakes caused by poor decisions can be a result of poor health. Plato – considered gymnastics and music as the two most important subjects in the curriculum. Xenophon – thought of physical education as important in terms of the military and essential to success in life soundness of the mind and body. â€Å"The Physical Education during the Dark Ages† This period is the Physical activities are only characterized by the strong healthy and physically morally deteriorated as their way of life. This was the asceticism and scholasticism. Worldly pleasures are not recognized by them because they prepare their lives in the next world. So their body has not physically fit because they focus of what they believe. The scholasticism believes the key to successful life as the development of the mental or intellectual powers. This beliefs has presented a challenge to physical activities are not allowed to be one of the subject in curriculum. â€Å"The Physical Education during the Age of Feudalism† The period of Feudalism come into the being often the death of powerful ruler Charlemagne in 1814, it was a system of land tenure that based upon the allegiance and service of the nobleman or lord which owned everything. The kinds of Physical Education were like a social and military in nature. That strengthens and hardens the body to be rigorous of whatever tasks. Physical activities are played as a major part in the training of knighthood and for self preservation only. â€Å"Physical Education during the Renaissance† The Physical Education has an impact to their bodies and soul that inspirable and endorsable. A good physical health promoted learning and rest and recreation that needed by the body. This believes was necessary for health to develop the body as a preparation for welfare and recognition for the important contribution of physical education to the social and moral life.

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Pope Benedict II

Pope Benedict II was known for: His extensive knowledge of  Scripture. Benedict was also known to have a fine singing voice. Occupations: PopeSaint Places of Residence and Influence: Italy Important Dates: Confirmed as Pope:  June 26, 684Died:  , 685 About Pope Benedict II: Benedict was Roman, and at an early age he was sent to the schola cantorum, where he became extremely knowledgeable in Scripture.  As a priest he was humble, generous, and good to the poor. He also became known for his singing. Benedict was elected pope shortly after the death of Leo II in June of 683, but it took more than eleven months for his election to be confirmed by Emperor Constantine Pogonatus. The delay inspired him to get the emperor to sign a decree putting an end to the requirement of an emperors confirmation. In spite of this decree,  future popes would  still undergo  an imperial  confirmation process. As pope, Benedict worked to suppress Monothelitism. He restored many churches of Rome, helped the clergy and supported the care of the poor. Benedict died in May of 685. He was succeeded by John V. More Pope Benedict II Resources: Popes BenedictAll about the popes and antipopes  who have gone by the name of Benedict through the Middle Ages and beyond. Pope Benedict II in Print The links below will take you to a site where you can compare prices at booksellers across the web. More in-depth info about the book may be found by clicking on to the books page at one of the online merchants. by Richard P. McBrien by P. G. Maxwell-Stuart Pope Benedict II on the Web Pope St. Benedict IIConcise biography by Horace K. Mann at the Catholic Encyclopedia.St. Benedict IIAdmiring bio at Christs Faithful People. The PapacyChronological List of PopesWhos Who Directories: Chronological Index Geographical Index Index by Profession, Achievement, or Role in Society The text of this document is copyright  ©2014 Melissa Snell. You may download or print this document for personal or school use, as long as the URL below is included. Permission is not granted to reproduce this document on another website. For publication permission, please visit Abouts Reprint Permissions page. The URL for this document is:http://historymedren.about.com/od/bwho/fl/Pope-Benedict-II.htm